(forthcoming) provide a strong warning that collective cultures as well as honoring hierarchical superiority may also have an acute need to maintain self-esteem. C. we elaborated a typology of school improvement trajectories: we identi ed 4 di erent trajectories of school improvement. Changing our schools : linking school effectiveness and school improvement. Journal of Research in Leader Education, Taras, V. M. Celikten, M. (2004). (2004). Bottery (1999) has described this as managerial globalization, in which the adoption of western managerialist approaches and business-based forms of accountability underpins educational reform and development. Hanges, S. Trond The development of a professional school culture is an important approach for promoting teacher learning (Stoll & Kools, 2017). Librarian resources Accultured, automatic, emotional responses preclude awareness of internalized culture. every organization must have a person in charge, acute awareness of the expenditure of time, an obligation to accommodate others right to participate. (1996). Schein, E. H. Improving. Journal of Educational Administration, 34(5), 7497. His critique suggests that there is insufficient time given in such an approach to understanding existing cultures, both at a general level and in terms of the underpinning key components and variables, and the consequence is cultural imperialism. . (2001). (Hargreaves 1995; Maslowski 2001, pp. In many countries the principal may indeed be key. E. V. Velsor, E. V. An example of the cultural challenges that emerge from this has been described by Hallinger and Kantamara (2001) in the context of Thailand. P. W. Assessment is also increasingly against competences which are exported internationally (MacPherson et al., 2007). Categorization of groups which might be assumed to hold a culture in common is therefore problematic. A key influence on culture within and beyond schools has been globalization. Creating this culture of change by constantly challenging the status quo is a contact sport involving hard, labor-intensive work and a lot of time. It is "the way we do things around here" and often defined as 'the basic assumptions, norms and values and cultural artifacts of a school that . A welfarist culture, alternatively, emphasizes the individual needs of pupils. Hwang, K. K. While the former classroom and lecture based model is widespread, they suggest that the process model of problem solving, mentoring and internship holds more hope of reflecting indigenous cultures. | Promotions Pupils, staff and school leaders have an on-going engagement with external stakeholders, from parents, to neighbors, to employers, to the media, and every one of those interactions conveys a message about the culture of the school and its underpinning values. We must be aware that the spread of good practice internationally through the educational management literature, through the actions of international organisations such as UNESCO, and through the impact of professional development programmes, all of which are dominated by the perspectives of western educational management practitioners and academics, is in danger of presenting such a global picture of good practice. , However, these may be taken-for-granted, and only apparent to those designing and delivering development when a lack of fit is pointed out by specific groups. According to Mortimore (1991), a lot of improvement efforts have failed because research results were not translated adequately into guidelines for educational practice. Cross-cultural issues in development of leaders. (Forthcoming). Lack of uniformity of culture is therefore an issue even among small, apparently homogeneous groups Distinguishing rhetoric from practice is a second challenge. Louque, A. Training and educating principals for such cultural literacy is the focus of later sections in this chapter. Preliminary explorations of indigenous perspectives of educational management, Journal of Educational Administration, 34(5), 5073. The second is that cultural plurality is the norm in many educational systems and within most individual schools and colleges. Conflicting expectations, demands and desires. Unproductive, toxic schools have fragmented staffs, eroding goals, and negative, hopeless atmospheres. (1985). We present here a small number of examples in order to illustrate a range of typologies. Head teachers in rural China: aspects of ambition. Heck, R. Litvin (1997) attacks such essentialism, ascribing the taxonomy of groups to a Western Platonic purportedly scientific paradigm. Ribbins (2004) also found evidence of 35 aspects of leadership which are culturally specific, for example, the degree to which compassion, status-consciousness, autonomy and domination are perceived to contribute to effective leadership is culturally contingent. Hoppe (2004) believes US leaders have little difficulty in receiving negative feedback. More helpful is the model of Schein (1990), which, in contrast, has provided a generic and analytical model of culture. Panel 4 A Typology of School Cultures. Conflict and change. & The first approach led to selection of 25 most frequently found publications on the school as learning organisation and/or learning school. Washington, K. One consequence is that there is currently no precise means of assessing dimensions variously labeled as cultural distance or degree of diversity (Iles & Kaur Hayers, 1997, p. 107) or diversity amount and diversity degree (Thomas, 1999; Taras & Rowney, 2007); that is the differences between the culture of one location of leader development and another, or the extent of cultural differences within a leader development group. Cultures Consequences, Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations Across Nations (2nd ed.). The first is that culture is neither unitary nor static (Collard & Wang, 2005), and while change may be evolutionary rather than revolutionary, trends and developments in internal and external influences will move the culture forward. DiTomaso, N. , The challenge for leaders, therefore, is to manage that change in terms of speed, direction or nature to support the organizations goals. School Culture. & The concept of culture has appeared frequently in analyses of both. The study identifies how cultural literacy amongst the principals of the schools is a key element of the positive achievements they report. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. A number of summative frameworks for analyzing culture have therefore been developed which seek to reduce the complexity of culture to simplified types which can be labeled for ease of comprehension. Sarason, S. Discernment of the publicly espoused culture, the culture implicit in practice and the desired culture will inevitably comprise a kaleidoscope of differing opinions and wishes reflecting the perspectives of the individuals responsible for the design and delivery of development. In China the relatively low contact hours enjoyed by teachers combined with a culture of comfort with peer critique has resulted in teacher groups working together for a considerable proportion of their time to achieve change (Bush & Qiang, 2000), while principals spend much of their time on operational administration (Washington, 1991). & School culture refers to a total of shared values expressed through norms, rituals, expectations, behaviour and everyday practices. Culture also impacts on delivery. This unique culture will reveal itself through a number of institutional characteristics: While these representations are identifiable and mostly tangible, the illusiveness of the concept of culture lies in the fact that it is an holistic concept which is more than the sum of these component parts. This is but one element of the interplay of competing values, priorities and hierarchies of power which influence culture. , School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 12(4), 385408. (2001). Instead there are history, context, process, interactivity, power relations and change. International Journal for Leadership in Education, 4(4), 2029. ), Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: the GLOBE study of 62 Societies (pp. Diversity and the demands of leadership. Instead there are history, context, process, interactivity, power relations and change. & One of the best known is that applied to schools by Handy and Aitken (1986), which draws on observations across diverse organizations. Homogeneity or diversity is the organization more effective when it is characterized by diversity or homogeneity? London: Sage. , & While awareness of and reflection on hegemonic theory may be of use, its global dominance in preparation and development seems inappropriate on a number of grounds. Speci cally, many scientists believe (Henting, 1997; Bruner, 2000; Stoll & Fink, 2000; Faulstich, 1999) that high-quality and successful changes in education can be achieved by introducing a culture of learning which espouses the holism and integrity of human beings. They begin by discussing the historical, social and organizational forces that create continuity in education; which . What is the significance of time is the organization most oriented towards the past, the present or the future? Chinese culture and leadership. (Hoppe, 2004, p. 333), a set of shared values and preferred actions among members of a society that largely determines among other things, the boundaries within which leader development is possible. A new typology of school-level values is reported in three cultural contexts. (Eds. Leadership learning the praxis of dilemma management. Mabey Published 1996. School values were assessed by aggregating the scores of 862 students, (ages 15-19) in 32 Jewish and Arab Israeli schools (Study 1), and 1,541 students (ages 11-21) from 8 European schools and 163 teachers from 6 of these schools (Study 2), using Schwartz's Portrait Values Questionnaire. Gupta None is universally applicable or comprehensive, but all can serve to support an educational leaders reflection on the culture of a specific school. Analysis of culture embedded in preparation and development programs will involve discriminating between what is rhetorical and what is evidenced. Each of these contexts has a culture that expresses itself conceptually, verbally, behaviorally and visually, and which is a product of the complex interaction of communities, socio-economic contexts and contrasts, ethnic and faith-based values and beliefs, and the history of that community as a whole and of the individuals within it. Chan, B. International Journal of Educational Management, 5(3), 45. Dorfman and House (2004) suggest three competing propositions: that cultural congruence in development and leadership is more effective; that cultural difference can be stimulating and bring about positive change; that leadership is universal activity. A. Personal or student reference I refer students to this publication for new research articles or for my work, Benefit library's collection Acquisition of this publication will benefit department, faculty and student needs, Affiliation , (2001). Within this, however, there may exist several cultures: Stoll and Fink (1996)25 pupil culture, teacher cultures, a leadership culture, non-teaching staff culture, and parent culture. But the real purpose of schools was, is, and always will be about learning. (Eds. While these are different aims, they both involve intercultural fluency. By continuing to use the site Begley, P. London: Sage. In (2007). & (1986). N. The Leadership Quarterly, 7(2), 163187. (2001). Much of it has been misdirected and some of it wasteful. In this set article, Professor Louise Stoll explores the relationship between school culture and school improvement. If leaders believe that a dominant culture is identifiable or achievable, and that it is a single, stable and unifying phenomenon, then changing it becomes a matter of choice, but relatively straightforward and without any moral ramifications. A preparation for school leadership: International perspectives. Sierra Vista Elementary 1800 E. Whittier Boulevard La Habra, CA 90631 Phone: 562-690-2359. Tippeconic, J. The design of curriculum and delivery is therefore to an extent a cultural guessing game requiring those responsible for preparation and development to hold a high level of cultural fluency themselves and to support the development of cultural fluency in others. Organizational change, leadership and learning: culture as cognitive process. Certainly it would be helpful to undertake an educational equivalent of the GLOBE project (House et al., 2004) and to establish the education leadership attributes and behaviors that are held in common across a large number of nations and those elements that are culturally contingent. Dorfman International Journal for Leadership in Education, 4(4), 367381. & Mentoring is therefore flavored by ease and acceptance of the views of seniors but sensitivity to negative feedback. Processual competencies, comprising intrapersonal competencies and cognitive competencies (2003, p.84), are also needed. London: Paul Chapman. The chapter considers five main themes. Revisiting the Culture of the School and the Problem of Change. with Boston: Allyn and Bacon. ), Leading Schools in a Global Era: A Cultural Perspective, Peabody Journal of Education, Litvin, D. R. Two typologies are developed. | Terms & conditions. Mills Fernandez Asia Pacific Journal of Education, Cardno, C. Hoppe asserts that US leaders find difficulty with accepting supportive relationships. Every school, for example, has a specific geographical and social location which will strongly shape its cultural context the inner city school serving a diverse multi-ethnic community will inherit a diversity of cultures that may be quite different to those of the suburban middle class school. (2001). The discourse of diversity: from biology to management. & Informa UK Limited, an Informa Group Company Home | About RHO | Collections Changing Our Schools: Linking School Effectiveness and School Improvement. Bajunid (1996, p. 52) argued over a decade ago that in Malaysia there is an urgent need to inspire, motivate and work with relevant and meaningful concepts that the locals are at home and familiar with and to free educational leadership and management from the intellectual domination of Greco-Roman, Christian, Western intellectual traditions (1996, p. 63). Hargreaves, D. H. Heck, R. London: Falmer. Kennedy, A. Walnut Elementary 625 N. Walnut St. La Habra, CA 90631 Phone: 562-690-2369. Sparrow, P. Moral leadership in education: an Indian perspective. While the analytical models described are helpful in conceptualizing the nature of culture, there are a number of key issues for leaders to recognize in reflecting on their own organizations. Ruiz-Quintanilla, A. (1971). Paul, J. . Notwithstanding these different positions, knowledge of how leadership is conceptualized and enacted locally is a sine qua non of successful design. House (1986). (1990). Al-Meer, A. (2001). , . International Studies in Educational Administration. , (forthcoming). J. Analysis of the content of programs might suggest that such commitment is largely camouflage for neglect of such values (Lopez, 2003; Rusch, 2004). Education. From the approach adopted for teaching and learning, to the cultural values espoused in the pastoral and ethical functions of the school, to the relative value ascribed to possible destinations for pupils beyond school, the fabric of school life will be imbued by these cultural processes. & Processes and structures designed for a time that has passed are no longer appropriate in a rapidly changing society. , And, of course, the selection of principals by governors, education boards or regional/national education authorities is a key mechanism through which the cultural inputs to a school will be strongly controlled. Journal of School Leadership, Coleman, M. Changing the culture becomes merely a question of technical fit, of shaping leadership development to align it to local culture. Ali (1996, p. 7) argues that the Jabria school of Muslim thought, influential in the Arab world, might rule out systematic planning as to plan is in conflict with predestination. Beyond the school, though, lies a range of contextual cultures extending from the community within which the school lies to regional, national and international cultural contexts. Duignan, P. In terms of cultural inputs it is important that leaders within a school have the skills and knowledge to read the cultural landscape of the school, to recognize those aspects of it which can be controlled or manipulated, and decide which should be influenced and in what ways. & (1996). G. Another output lies in the cultural characteristics and values of the young people who are the product of the school once they have completed their time there. A tentative model and case study. It involves consideration of fit to the culture of each individual school but also the necessity to equip leaders to engage with their own organizations culture, to sustain, develop or challenge it. The model identifies seven dimensions of organizational context that shape resultant culture, based on a series of key questions: These questions provide a helpful analytical framework, which can be applied in most educational contexts, and which seeks to identify the underlying values and beliefs within a school. Walker, A. Hallinger (2001) also points to the ubiquitous use of theories such as Learning Organization and School Based Management, which are firmly embedded in similar cultural norms. (2006). Research in such contexts is still not extensive, although Billot, Goddard and Cranston (2007) report the findings of an international study which explores how leadership in successful multi-cultural schools is exercised in three different national settings (Canada, New Zealand and Australia). UCEA. Hoyle, E. Sarason (1971, 1996), writing of US schools, was one of the earliest to insist that improving schools was primarily a question of changing culture. The extent of this range of sub-cultures and counter-cultures and their positive or negative interactions will be a key issue for those in leadership within the school and may cause cultural management issues to be significant or insignificant within the whole management task. A more flexible and subtle shaping will be needed. The paper reviews the literature on 'what works' in school improvement taken from a number of sourcesfrom effective schools studies, from accounts by headteachers who have turned schools around. (forthcoming) point up the greater sensitivity within some cultures where responsibility for success is group owned and/ or where maintaining face is a high priority. The challenge for educational leaders is to recognize and conceptualize each of these cultural realms and understand how it impacts on and provides implications for their own school. Cultural inputs have many facets these will include the external cultural context (society, community and economy at local, regional and national scales), and the cultures brought to the school by all those engaging with it (teachers, parents, pupils, for example). Developing the argument further, Litvins point is that even within an apparently homogeneous group there will be wide variation in culture related to the multiple characteristics, history and context of each individual. A major international study, The Global Leadership and Organizational Effectiveness (GLOBE) project, aimed to establish which leadership behavior was universally viewed as contributing to leadership effectiveness (House, Paul, Hanges, Ruiz-Quintanilla, Dorfman & Mansour 2004, p. 3). Consequently, a tendency to stereotype or discount alternative cultures must be halted by conscious, persistent effort (Lumby with Coleman, 2007). In & Despite the recognition that culture is an elusive and diverse concept, identifying some of the existing intellectual paradigms of culture is an important starting point. However, boundaries are permeable. (Ed.). (forthcoming) distinguish transmission models, where experts pass on theoretical knowledge (often indiscriminately, as discussed earlier), and process models which use more community based styles of learning. Images of Organization, Powell, A. G. Although researchers are just beginning to document the effectiveness of the PLC culture, early indications show that it has a significant positive effect on student learning (Lee & Smith, 1996; Louis & Marks, 1998; Stoll et al., 2006; Wiley, 2001). Day 6886). Stier insists that the latter cannot be achieved by content competencies alone. Bjerke, B. Schools with strong, positive cultures feature service-oriented staffs, a collegial ambience, celebratory rituals, supportive social networks, and humor. Intercultural Education. Preparing head teachers to respond to these challenges will be a significant challenge, therefore, and this is a focus later in the chapter. Essentially it makes a questionable assumption. Stoll (2000) gave a general definition on the foundations of school's cultures. Jacky Lumby One dimension of fit may relate to ease with receiving positive and negative feedback and from whom. School leaders work within pressing cultures which sustain themselves by multiple conscious and unconscious mechanisms (Lumby with Coleman, 2007). A. The notions of cultural diffusion and cultural fit assume that programs designed to take account of the cultural expectations and preferences of participants are more likely to lead to effective learning and resulting practice. Educational Administration Quarterly, 39(1), 6894. Dorfman, P. W. Hoppe (2004) suggests that experiential learning proves enjoyable and effective for US leaders while French and German leaders often view this approach as time-wasting childs play (p. 353). M. Scheins model provides a greater level of sophistication by focusing on a challenging interrogation of the culture of the school and linking culture more strongly to underpinning values and beliefs. In. Global forces, national mediations and the management of educational institutions. If alternatively, culture is viewed as multiple, unstable, persistently contested, reflecting the differing perspectives and power of individuals and groups, changing the culture of a school is a different kind of endeavor. In others, variation is considerable and the primary drive to develop teaching and learning, attainment and achievement may be located elsewhere. You can find out more in our Privacy Policy. Culture is so rooted in all aspects of human activity that its all encompassing nature may limit its usefulness in practice to conceptualizing leadership and shaping the development of leaders. The implications of these strategies for leadership training and development have been analyzed by DiPaola (2003) who outlines a number of key components of principal preparation programs. 206207). (2001). As we shall demonstrate later in the chapter, it is getting to understand these values and beliefs that is a critical first step for educational leaders in developing the skills to manage, develop and evolve culture in their school. The purpose of this book is to re-orient the current agenda in education towards learning. Lumby et al. Hanges The Place of Culture in Social Theory. Young Ribbins, P. Those undertaking preparation for development may have differing value priorities which are culturally shaped. London: Penguin. Watch Events 3 Live Search by typing your school, event, association. Deal, T. His ideas were widely influential. (Throughout, the term development is used to indicate both pre-appointment preparation and the post-appointment on-going development of leaders.) He also insisted that the complex creation of culture was the result of multiple inputs from staff, learners and the wider community. The first proposes four 'ideal type' school cultures, based on two underlying domains; the second, a more elaborate and dynamic model, proposes two 'ideal type' school cultures, based on five underlying structures. (1999). M. There are no essential, innate and immutable characteristics of race, age, gender, disability or other demographic categories. One of the best known divisions was by Stoll and Fink (2000), which distinguishes mobile, . Bryant, M. A person in charge is not required. The chapter aims to avoid becoming ensnared in the complexity of culture by confining its discussion to a sample of illustrative examples of both simple and complex conceptualizations. Does it perceive itself as dominant, submissive, harmonizing or searching out a niche within its operational environment? , Bajunid, I. Understanding Schools as Organisations All leadership development has embedded cultural values. In this line, a study . For example, Bryant (1998), researching the leadership culture of Native Americans in the United States, suggests a number of cultural assumptions embedded in American leadership: The result is a simultaneous requirement for a task and people orientation. Culture is the set of beliefs, values and behaviors, both explicit and implicit, which underpin an organization and provide the basis of action and decision making, and is neatly summarized as the way we do things around here. Cultural sensitivity demands consideration of how leadership is dispersed amongst the players within schools and the regional administration in a specific context before designing national and local systems in response. Sarason, S. Such simple categorizations provide briefly interesting analytical tools to assist school leaders in gaining an initial understanding of their school culture, but are of limited wider utility. Kaur Hayers, P. We need to work in organisations, collectively developing an understanding of where they are going and what is important. Cultural fluency will be predicated on more than cognitive effort (Lakomski, 2001). R. McCauley The mechanics of diffusion and the appropriateness of the results have been subject to unequal research interest. (1996). Whittier Christian High School is a highly rated, private, Christian school located in LA HABRA, CA. Watch online from home or on the go.
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